AI, or artificial intelligence, has been a hot topic as of late. However, some might not understand what ‘AI’ really means.

Google mentioning AI about 25 times throughout their latest keynote

When Big Tech companies refer to AI they are most commonly referring to deep learning applications: deep learning is a specialized form of machine learning, but what is machine learning?

Machine learning is often characterized as a manifestation of statistics and this technology is nothing new.

The term AI can encompass many forms of mathematics such as knowledge graphs or logic engines, but these are not classified as machine learning. The key difference between AI and machine learning is that an ML system is able to learn from new data.

So if deep learning is what people are actually excited about, what is that exactly?

Deep learning relies upon an intersection of AI and data science, leveraging deeply layered neural networks to learn hierarchical representations from big datasets, which enables predictive analytics, classification, regression, generation, and more!

Neural Nets

Latent Diffusion

AI Ethics

Many are ringing the alarms concerning the ethics of deep learning models and the dangers of super-intelligence. However, to have any ability to consider this in any practical sense we must focus on model interpretability to truly understand what is going on behind the scenes.

AGI

HellaSwag: Can a Machine Really Finish Your Sentence? (May 19, 2019)

“In this paper, we show that commonsense inference still proves difficult for even state-of-the-art models, by presenting HellaSwag, a new challenge dataset. Though its questions are trivial for humans (>95% accuracy), state-of-the-art models struggle (<48%). We achieve this via Adversarial Filtering (AF), a data collection paradigm wherein a series of discriminators iteratively select an adversarial set of machine-generated wrong answers.”

How does physics connect to machine learning? (Jaan Li)

Measures of Consciousness

Processing Power

Semi-annual update of the top 500 ranking supercomputers in the world (top500.org)

The current approach to improving model performance seems to be exponentially increasing parameter sizes. The reality is that we must make models more efficient to run on less powerful devices like phones and be more energy efficient. It is a matter of working smart versus working hard.

Most deep learning models run off of powerful GPUs, typically Nvidia due to CUDA core compatibility with mainstream software, and this is either done by cloud with AWS/Azure servers or an expensive computer. Apple Silicon recently started a huge trend where manufacturers are prioritizing ARM chips due to their affinity for machine learning calculations and power efficiency. Now, Intel, AMD, and other chip manufacturers have also begun to release products in this regard.

One huge problem we will encounter is the exponentially increasing difficulty of fitting more transistors into the same space. The physical size of each transistor has become so small that quantum effects are starting to interfere with the electronics. As we gradually approach the limit of the current transistor paradigm we must consider where to go next.

A few prospects are emerging which could push us to a new era of computing including quantum computing and superconductors, but ultimately the effects of quantum tunneling when dealing with < 5 nanometers means that chips will just have to grow in size for compute hungry tasks.

IonQ’s Calculus to Commercial Quantum Computing Advantage — IONQ

Revisiting The Economic Impact of Automation

Can We See the Impact of Automation in the Economics Statistics?

— Uncharted Territories, popular Substack

A.I. Will Not Displace Everyone, Everywhere, All at Once. It Will Rapidly Transform the Labor Market, Exacerbating Inequality, Insecurity, and Poverty.

— Scott Santens (11 year researcher of UBI)

Automation and the displacement of labor by capital: Asset pricing theory and empirical evidence
(ScienceDirect, Nov 24, 2022)

TASKS, AUTOMATION, AND THE RISE IN U.S. WAGE INEQUALITY
(MIT Economics, September 2022)

Physical AI

Bio-Computing

It is hard to determine when a computer will obtain consciousness or surpass the computing power of a human brain. The question itself is hard to determine: Can binary programming mimic natural neurons? What is the theoretical computing power of a human brain? Are our neuron interactions quantum based? (Our noses are) How do we define what is consciousness?

Ultimately, biological systems may be more robust. There is so much more to learn from the mechanisms of nature. Life is truly the ultimate technology. You may be shocked to discover that the intelligence of individual cells is underestimated. I will be covering more about Michael Levin’s research in another post!

Moreover, there is so much more about neuroscience that we have barely discovered.

The most advanced computers may eventually be biological computers with engineered neurons.

AI made from living human brain cells performs speech recognition (New Scientist, Dec 11, 2023)

~80% accuracy in identifying voices (keep in mind this is a first prototype!!!)

Further Readings

arXiv is a free distribution service and an open-access archive for nearly 2.4 million scholarly articles in the fields of physics, mathematics, computer science, quantitative biology, quantitative finance, statistics, electrical engineering and systems science, and economics. Materials on this site are not peer-reviewed by arXiv.

— Has a lot of the newest deep learning papers

The ML Papers That Rocked Our World (2020-2023)

Many scientists theorize that anthropogenic change is creating the conditions for a 6th mass extinction event. The background extinction rate gives a constant to compare against and it is clear that the extinction rate is accelerating.

As you can see above, the rapidly changing conditions of the Anthropocene is affecting animal groups differently.

Invertebrates are even seeing a surge in population.

During periods of rapid change several characteristics may contribute to the resilience of a species: behavioral variability, high reproductive rates, broad geographic ranges, flexible diet, and adaptability to various habitats. This is the way of nature and how mammals came to dominate the Earth after the Cretaceous-Paleogene mass extinction event; when the dinosaurs died off from a major asteroid impact.

The extent of climate change will depend on the collective actions of our global civilization, but rest assured life will likely never go extinct. However, it is important to understand that humans thrive off complex ecosystems supported by rich biodiversity.

IPCC 2022 Report

The IPCC Report “assesses the impacts of climate change, looking at ecosystems, biodiversity, and human communities at global and regional levels. It also reviews vulnerabilities and the capacities and limits of the natural world and human societies to adapt to climate change.”

https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/

Atmospheric Physics

One thing that the report emphasizes is the role of atmospheric physics in climate change. Many of the phenomena are still unable to understood due to their complexity, but we do understand that as greenhouse emissions increase there is a domino effect of warming, especially at the poles.

Moreover, these changes can disrupt global wind patterns causing severe weather patterns and drastic changes in climate across large regions.

We must not underestimate the destructive capabilities of mother nature. As the climate warms there will be more ocean water, and this could lead to unforeseen disasters apart from rising sea levels. Large volumes of water are a terrifying force under inclement conditions.

Climate Alarmism

The ultimate realization we must make is that our current civilization is extremely dependent on the infrastructure we have built over the 20th century. This infrastructure was built with primarily fossil fuels in mind and it will take time for nations to transition, let alone afford, renewable and circular energy infrastructure. On the topic of affording infrastructure investments, oil is the basis of the world economy and essential for financial growth.

Our Industrialized World

“Why Demand Destruction Is More Worrying Than A Supply Crunch In Oil Markets”

Developing Countries

The problem with net zero climate programs is that poorer countries are disproportionately affected. Rich countries are already industrialized and burned a lot of fossil fuels to get there. Also, geographic disparities can put many nations at an inherent disadvantage for building a sustainable economy. Geographic determinism is a huge part of the history and future of nations.

Fossil Fuel Economy
→ 100% Renewable Electric Economy

“Biden’s green energy law is turning out to be huge” - Aug 7, 2023

“US green energy law is turning out to be huge. The Inflation Reduction Act tax incentives are way more popular than expected. Nations in Europe and elsewhere are rattled by the possibility that the United States might now capture an outsized portion of the global green energy economy.”

“One year after passage of the Inflation Reduction Act estimates have already tripled from original CBO projections. It has created a flurry of investments in new factories and clean energy projects. Some economists are crediting it with a new US manufacturing renaissance. The tax incentives are in place for ten years and have no cap or upper limit.”

Damage Control

Fortunately we are growing more environmentally conscious and developing ways to reduce our impact on Earth without human sacrifice. We are able to engineer our way out of this, but it will not happen overnight.

“A startup says it’s begun releasing particles into the atmosphere, in an effort to tweak the climate” - MIT Tech Review 24 Dec 2022

“Abrupt reduction in shipping emission as an inadvertent geoengineering termination shock produces substantial radiative warming” - Nature 30 May 2024

Uncharted Territories

🌏 Farm the Ocean

Give me half a tanker of iron and I’ll give you the next ice age.—John Martin, oceanographer What if there was a way to capture more CO2 than we’ve ever dreamed, reduce the surface dedicated to farmland, plant more trees, increase life around the world, solve world hunger, grow the economy, and make money along the way…

Read more

3 years ago · 96 likes · 51 comments · Tomas Pueyo

Uncharted Territories

🌎 Seaflooding

Sea levels might rise by one to two meters by the end of the century. What if I told you there was a way to mitigate that, while creating new habitats and more life, growing the economy, and making money along the way? Let’s call it seaflooding. Do You Like the Mediterranean Today…

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3 years ago · 223 likes · 100 comments · Tomas Pueyo

Further Readings

Uncharted Territories

Climate Change Update – Q3 2023

I usually make one single update per quarter, with a free and a premium part. This quarter there’s so many updates that I have twice the content, so I’ll spread it over two weeks and split the free and premium parts. So expect to receive four newsletters on Q3 2023 updates this week and next: One free and one premium each week…

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3 years ago · 88 likes · 78 comments · Tomas Pueyo

Water is something so essential to life, but yet another thing we have commoditized. The topic of water is growing to become important in geopolitical and existential conversations.

Freshwater Access

There is no shortage of water itself on planet Earth, however freshwater is what is useful to human beings. Therefore, we rely on rivers and lakes for all the water we use. The problem nowadays is that dry places are getting drier, all the while we are using more water; this is leading to an inevitable decline in water supplies.

Water Diversion

Desalination

The salty water in the ocean must be desalinated to become anything useful and this process is very energy intensive. Unfortunately we do not yet have fusion reactors so energy tends to cost a lot! Good news is that we are developing cheaper better ways to desalinate water, but we will have to see whether these technologies can scale.

Freshwater Eutrophication

Water Pollution

Micro-Geoengineering

Practice for terraforming.

Tangent: Sulfur Emissions

Turns out we have been doing geoengineering for awhile now. Cargo tankers used to emit a lot of sulfur emissions because of the particular fuel they used. Recently we have started to phase out these fuels for sulfur free alternatives and as a result we have discovered these sulfur emissions have been deflecting some solar radiation. This switch to cleaner tanker fuel has inadvertently warmed the planet more and left us the important takeaway that geoengineering is already happening. Many have argued that geoengineering is too dangerous or unethical, but this perspective can now be approached with some skepticism.

Land Reclamation

Shoreline Protection

Holistic Land Management

We are seeing a growing movement of holistic land management technique such as permaculture where we utilize nature to enhance our environments. Water can be retained in the landscape through trees/vegetation and reservoirs (lakes, ponds, swamps, flooded forests, aquifers). This results in a decrease in ambient temperature, resistance to wildfires, increased biodiversity, and more! There are so many things we can learn from the wonders of our natural world.

Stormwater & Grey Water Management

Many cities have antiquated infrastructures that manage stormwater and waste water in unproductive ways: such as mixing them together and pumping it all to a treatment facility that has a limited capacity. We have now learned to design our cities better, but it takes a lot of time and money to update infrastructure. Hopefully we can be more proactive about the ways we design our cities including their relationship with water/nature.

Hydrothermal Carbonization

Turning waste into useful resources.

Since the dawn of complex civilization, enabled by agricultural technology, we have relied heavily on soil fertility. Plants require a variety of macro and micro nutrients.

For this reason we initially settled areas rich with river sedimentation. This sedimentation is exactly what creates fertile soil, however there are a few other contributors to soil fertility.

The Mesoamericans utilized floating garden pads in lakes and symbiotic relationships akin to permaculture principles to create fertile growing conditions.

Another case would be volcanic soils which are extremely fertile. Which is exactly why Java has an incredibly high population density.

Uncharted Territories

Why is Java So Weird?!

Java has a larger population than Russia. And this is not just a story of “there are plenty of people in Asia”. Java has a bigger population than Japan! Even by Asian standards, Java is just extremely densely populated…

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3 years ago · 83 likes · 34 comments · Tomas Pueyo

Artificial Fertilizer

One of the most important factors in the relatively recent global population boom was the widespread use of artificial fertilizer. This enabled far more crops to be grown than before. However, we now live in a world where we have fertilizer suppliers and dependent countries.

Every year the global demand for fertilizer grows and I am sure this will become a growing geopolitical issue.

Soil Dysbiosis

Fertilizer demand is also growing because of poor agricultural practices leaching nutrients out of fertile regions. Modern agriculture relies on monocropping, pesticides, herbicides, and other modern industrial practices.

Fortunately there are techniques to combat this and preserve, or even restore, soil fertility naturally. You may have heard how earthworms are good at eating and further decomposing organic matter in soil, thereby increasing soil fertility!

The Climate Crisis = The Food Crisis

The industrial food complex that supports modern populations is based off the climate we were used to in the 20th century and before. As the climate crisis starts to change weather patterns, many regions of the world will experience drastic changes. This may affect some less than others, but overall the instability of weather will increase.

While increasing severe weather patterns may be escapable to some extent, the resulting damage to agricultural industries will not be escapable. Food will become increasingly scarce and prices will soar.

New Age Agriculture

This is where a technological solution may come in. Food security is a big concern as it is a basic human need. Fortunately we are starting to see the rise in use of aquaculture, vertical farming & other advanced agricultural techniques. This new age farming contains a variety of benefits including no pesticides/herbicides, increased nutrient density, and resistance to drastic weather patterns since a lot of these operations are indoors!

Vertical Farming

Now the 2 major challenges with a lot of these techniques is power consumption and initial material cost. However, in the long run it may become far cheaper than traditional agriculture through a variety of means: becoming cheaper through economies of scale, cost per use declining after initial investment, and increasing yields through iterative system design.

Soilless Growing

An interesting thing with vertical farming is that it usually utilizes soilless growing techniques. Below you can see 3 different methods: aeroponics mists the plant roots, deep water culture keeps the roots submerged, nutrient film technique where a thin layer of liquid is maintained below the roots. Each method has its benefits and drawbacks such as water usage, system complexity, and resistance to disease. The drip system is also mentioned which uses soil, but has constant micro-irrigation saving water and efficiently delivering nutrients.

All of these systems utilize nutrient solutions to feed the plants in contrast to natural soil fertility. From what I’ve seen in the cannabis industry, plants grown using soilless methods achieve higher yields and quality of crop. Of course this relies on the care and attention of the growers, but generally it is superior.

“Study finds high blood and urinary metal levels among exclusive marijuana users” (Ground News)

A new study conducted at Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health suggests that marijuana users may have high levels of toxic metals, including lead and cadmium, in their blood. The study found that the cannabis plant absorbs these metals from the soil and deposits them in the leaves and buds, which can then be inhaled by users.

Soilless growing also circumvents this problem of heavy metal accumulation in some plants.

Smart (AI) Management

Instead of using herbicides and pesticides, many agricultural companies are turning to technology. AI powered technologies can keep track of and maintain crops preventing the use of nasty industrial chemicals to keep pests and weeds away.

Genetically Engineered Plants

Contrary to popular opinion, GMOs are not all evil and bad. This perception comes from the way big agriculture companies have prioritized profits over equitable food production: seed privatization, planned obsolescence, and decreasing nutrient density. In the wrong hands any technology becomes terrible, but it is all about the method of application. Genetic modification of plants has actually existed for quite awhile under conventional breeding or hybridization: increase crop yield, hardiness, and new attributes like color, flavor, or other appearance.

Livestock

Now livestock is an industry that will likely not change drastically, however as these new age farming techniques grow in popularity the amount of land used for agricultural practice will decline due to increased efficiency. Therefore, we will have a lot of free land for pastures.

I think that there is a sustainable way to raise cattle, however it does not involve industrial practices like grain feeding or cramped barns. As you can see in the diagram above, nature made cattle to be incredibly efficient in the biological circular economy. 14.5% is a significant portion of the global emissions, but I think the importance of animal protein cannot be ignored.

Synergistic techniques like solar grazing where livestock is used to clear the plant overgrowth in solar farming fields may be able to help, and a fully sustainable grid could feasibly sustain carbon capture.

Some theorize that we will create meat cell tanks instead of raising cattle because it is more resource efficient, but some others argue that this is not an actually feasible idea as it will take a significant amount of time before it is even cost competitive with real beef. One could also potentially argue that the micro-nutrient diversity and density that comes from a pastured cow cannot be paralleled by industrial alternatives.

Dairy on the other hand is simpler to synthetically produce using biomanufacturing!

Aquaculture

Insects as a feed ingredient for fish culture: Status and trends (March 2022)

“Potential environmental and nutritional benefits of replacing ruminant meat with forage fish“ (“Sustainable Production and Consumption”, ScienceDirect, Sept 2023)

^ pest eating fish. no need for antibiotics & pesticides

Aquaponics

Why is this important to you? Plastics are a common example of a synthetic polymer and they are used in every aspect of daily life from food containers to home sealants. In fact, plastics are so important that we are essentially dependent on them.

The problem is that plastics are made from fossil fuels [hydrocarbons].

We are only recently learning the problems that come with plastics such as microplastics and endocrine disruption. Plastics’ slow degradation also poses an issue of environmental persistence as it takes UV (sunlight) & a long time to break down. Recycling tends to use more energy than generating new plastic and it is not a long term solution.

A good question to ask is, what if the plastics were biodegradable in the first place? This is why some are discussing the idea of biopolymers replacing this aspect of the economy. Cellulose is the most abundant macromolecule on Earth. We can take advantage of this fact along with other biological tools to transform the infrastructure of the global economy.

Biomanufacturing

Biomanufacturing is set to become an accelerating industry as a growing body of research utilizes enzymes and bacteria in novel manufacturing methods.

Precision fermentation is already disrupting several traditional industries. Engineered yeast are bred in large tanks to produce an array of end products. This can range from pharmaceuticals to skincare & food ingredients to even textiles.

So in this future biotech world we would only need to use agricultural inputs of basically any organic matter (cellulose), and we could produce vast amounts of varied products including bioplastics, medicines, and industrial chemicals. There may be additional benefits like reduced energy consumption, reduced emissions, and increased yield per cost.

Once we convert to a fully electric transportation & sustainable grid economy the demand for gasoline, LNG, and diesel would drop significantly. Similarly, biomanufacturing would work to diminish the demand for hydrocarbons in plastics and even industrial chemicals. This would effectively destroy demand for crude oil and would work to significantly reduce emissions. There are so many other health, environmental, and economic benefits we would reap from this future ideal economy!

Sustainable Chemistry

The Polymerist is another Substack blog that I stumbled upon recently that discusses this in depth. The author is a PhD in polymer science and definitely knows whats he’s talking about.

The Polymerist

Bioeconomy Basics

If we want to seriously get away from using petroleum, there are a bunch of different hurdles we need to overcome, and I tried to explain how fundamental crude oil and its downstream products are previously in the newsletter. There are some really difficult problems in displacing petroleum centered around cost, efficiency, infrastructure, and transport …

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3 years ago · 16 likes · 10 comments · Tony Maiorana

The Polymerist

A Hurdle for New Biobased Plastics

There has always been this promise on the horizon of sustainable green chemistry incubating some technology that will save us from the deluge of plastic waste littering our beaches and remove our dependence on oil. This is the holy grail for polymer chemists focused on sustainability. The challenge is not invention. That part is relatively easy…

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3 years ago · 14 likes · 11 comments · Tony Maiorana

The Polymerist

Too Much Clothing

Hey there, This was actually two pieces I wrote in early 2021. I interviewed quite a few people for this including Dan Green of Helpsy, Romain Roux of Axens, and Vikram Nagargoje of Perpetual. This is long, but I think it’s worth it. I’ve tried to edit it a bit to be more streamlined, but I’m trying to take a break not create more work for myself. If yo…

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4 years ago · 3 likes · Tony Maiorana

Tangent: Engineered Bamboo

When plants grow they use CO2 to construct their cellulose walls. The fastest growing plants on Earth are the bamboo family. Their species are diverse and can range from cold hardy varieties to tall tropical giants.

There are 2 main types of bamboo: the clumping kind, and the running kind. The running kind is known for being extremely invasive because it will grow its roots deep underground and keep shooting up new stems far away. Bamboo is known for its excellent carbon sequestration abilities and that makes me wonder why we don’t grow more of it.

There is an interesting story of how Norman Borlaug utilized GMOs to increase the hardiness and yield of plants. The amount of lives he has saved from famine are innumerable. We could achieve a similar effect with GMO bamboo and reforest vast areas of unproductive land. This would soak a large amount of carbon and generate harvestable forests for cellulose.

Aside from being a cellulose source, bamboo is a great wood to use for a variety of applications: construction, furniture, flooring, kitchenware, charcoal, and even fabric (Tencel).

Modern Biotech

The term biotech covers a wide range of technologies, but generally it is comprised of an integration of the natural sciences and engineering to create new solutions.

Here I will be covering medical biotech, but I will expand upon industrial, agricultural, and marine biotech in the next few posts.

Molecular Diagnostics

Definition: sometimes called molecular pathology, it involves taking DNA or RNA and analyzing the sequences for red flags that can pinpoint the potential emergence of a specific disease.

Gene Sequencing

The field of molecular diagnostics has expanded rapidly in recent years, in part, due to the swift decline in cost for gene sequencing technologies.

CRISPR/Cas9

We used to think that gene editing had to occur at conception, so only for newly developing fetuses. However, CRISPR technology has enabled gene editing in vivo, meaning it is possible to genetically engineer fully matured human beings.

Viral Vector Therapies

“The Viruses That Could Cure Cancer (or Wipe Out Humanity)“ (WIRED, July 26, 2023)

Minicircles

Bioterrorism

“Another AI threat: The next pandemic” (Axios, Jun 16, 2023)

Gain of Function Research

DIY labs

As you can see in this YouTube channel, it is not hard to genetically engineer at home. The equipment may be costly, but it is not unattainable and only grows cheaper every year. Additionally, internet forums based around this niche knowledge will grow silently.

Biosecurity

Bioinformatics Regulation & Monitoring

Needs to be treated w/ similar seriousness to nuclear regulation & monitoring.

Uncharted Territories

What Most People Still Get Wrong About COVID Management

When I read COVID retrospectives, my hopes for humanity die a little bit. Today, I want to zero in on the most crucial lessons people have not learned. Later this week in the premium article, I will do a retrospective on my own performance: What did I get right and wrong? I’ll look back at some articles I’ve written, with a special focus on the big pred…

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3 years ago · 90 likes · 64 comments · Tomas Pueyo

The Next Pandemic

Emerging Pathogens

“Zoonotic Mutation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza H5N1 Virus Identified in the Brain of Multiple Wild Carnivore Species” (Jan 20, 2023)

Fungal Infections

Currently, we have no way to cure fungal infections. Anti-fungals do exist, but they are developing drug resistance much like bacteria. Fungi also share similar biochemistry to our bodies so it is trickier to combat with contemporary medicine. This is a problem we have not encountered on a larger scale, but hopefully research into combating these infections will grow as the years progress. The world of fungi is incredibly fascinating, and an area of science we do not know much about yet.

Definition: medicine focused on new treatments to heal tissues and organs, and restore function lost due to aging, disease, damage or defects.

The modalities of regenerative medicine take inspiration from endogenous compounds (chemicals originating within the body). The human body has a natural ability to heal itself in numerous ways.

“Nature is always more subtle, more intricate, more elegant than what we are able to imagine.” - Carl Sagan

I think this idea of viewing nature as the ultimate technology aligns with a lot of my beliefs in a variety of industries. I will be expanding upon this concept in upcoming posts about computing, manufacturing, agriculture, freshwater access, and more!

Emerging frontiers in regenerative medicine (Nature.org - May 25, 2023)

Recent Discoveries

“Third patient cured of HIV after receiving stem cell cancer treatment” (Feb 20, 2023)

“New injectable cell therapy could resolve osteoarthritis” (Apr 22, 2023)

• “Cartilage activated immune cells that target inflammation, combined with progenitor cells aid tissue regeneration…"

• “…found to have the ability to reverse cartilage damage in the synovial membrane and diminish the inflammation as well.”

“UVA Discovers Repair Process That Fixes Damaged Hearing Cells” (July 6, 2023)

• “…a protein called XIRP2, which has the ability to sense damage to the cores, which are made of a substance called actin. Shin and his team found that XIRP2 first senses damage, then migrates to the damage site and repairs the cores by filling in new actin.”

“Glimpse of success? Life Biosciences' gene therapy restores visual function in primates with eye disorder” (Apr 25, 2023)

Stem Cell Therapies

“The Difference Between Getting Stem Cells Internationally Vs. The USA, Peptides, Testosterone & Hormones, Tissue Engineering, DNA Editing, Truths & Myths Of Regenerative Medicine & More With Dr. Adeel Khan.” (July 15, 2023)

^ in depth interview about stem cells and regenerative med

Progenitor Cells

→ differentiates into specialized cells
→ unable to renew itself

Adipose Derived Stem Cells

Young vs Old stem cells

Umbilical Cord Stem Cells

Exosome Therapy

What are exosomes? An extra-cellular vesicle that contains a multitude of compounds.

It appears that exosomes are a part of how stem cells work during differentiation.

The advantage this may have over stem cells is that it is not living matter. This eliminates the runaway risk of cancer where faulty DNA can cause tumors.

“Stem cell-derived exosome versus stem cell therapy“ (Nature reviews bioengineering - April 12, 2023)

Gene Therapies

Gene Therapies (Harvard Stem Cell Institute)

Cellular reprogramming is no longer a thing of science fiction. Soon we will have genetically modified humans ubiquitously walking amongst us.

Follistatin Gene Therapy

FoxO Transcription Factors: Applicability as a Novel Immune Cell Regulators and Therapeutic Targets in Oxidative Stress-Related Diseases (Oct 6, 2022)

Longevity Gene Therapy

“Anti-ageing gene injections could rewind your heart age by 10 years” (Jan 23, 2023)

Cancer

Genetic Conditions

Designer Babies?

Gene Editing Vectors

Adeno-Associated Virus (AAV)

High Capacity Cytomegalovirus Vector

“New intranasal and injectable gene therapy for healthy life extension”

Mini Circles

“Minicircle Biopharmaceuticals–An Overview of Purification Strategies” (Jan 13, 2021)

“Minicircle DNA vectors for gene therapy: advances and applications“ (Dec 24, 2014)

"This biohacking company is using a crypto city to test controversial gene therapies” (MIT Technology Review)

^ backed by Peter Thiel

3D Bioprinting/Organ Regeneration

“This company is about to grow new organs in a person for the first time” (Aug 23, 2022)

• A volunteer with severe liver disease will soon undergo a procedure that could lead them to grow a second liver.

Hormone Replacement Therapy

HRT for Women

Peptides

BPC-157

TB-500

GHK-Cu

An emerging exciting peptide that has a variety of amazing effects

“Regenerative and Protective Actions of the GHK-Cu Peptide in the Light of the New Gene Data” (July 17, 2018)

“The potential of GHK as an anti-aging peptide” (Jan 25, 2022)

Semax/Selank (Melanocortin receptors)

These peptides are commonly used as a nasal spray for brain health effects. It is even prescribed in Russia for post-concussion, stroke, and other brain damage

“Semax Research (CanPeptides)”

• Semax Affects Resting Brain Structure

• Semax in the Setting of Stroke

• Semax and Gene Expression in the Brain

• Semax and Cognitive Performance

• Semax and Depression

“Semax, synthetic ACTH(4–10) analogue, attenuates behavioural and neurochemical alterations following early-life fluvoxamine exposure in white rats“ (April 2021)

• Repaired brain chemistry changes after early SSRI exposure

“Semax and selank inhibit the enkephalin-degrading enzymes from human serum“ (May 2001)

• Increases enkephalin (endogenous opioid) levels

“Antistress Action of Melanocortin Derivatives Associated with Correction of Gene Expression Patterns in the Hippocampus of Male Rats Following Acute Stress“ (Sept 17, 2021)

“Melanocortin peptides inhibit production of proinflammatory cytokines and nitric oxide by activated microglia” (June 1998)

“Melanocortin Regulation of Inflammation” (Oct 9, 2019)

Semaglutide (GLP-1 receptors)

Further Readings

There are even more therapies and longevity tech available nowadays. I will continue to observe evidence about which modalities are proving themselves to be effective. You can expect a lot more about this topic in the future!

“What Happens When Everyone Realises We Can Live Much Longer? We May Find Out As Soon As 2025“ (Nov 30, 2022)

I will be covering some of the topics shown above. Some are more studied/developed than others, but they are all forming a new standard of healthcare and biotech that may soon enable immortality.

Longevity Related Pathways

Sirtuins

GDF11

“Antiaging protein is the real deal, Harvard team claims” (Science.org)

“Lifelong exercise, but not short-term high-intensity interval training, increases GDF11, a marker of successful aging: a preliminary investigation

^ an active lifestyle literally makes you younger

IGF-1

There are conflicting studies about IGF-1: on one hand it has anti-aging and performance boosting effects, while high blood levels have been linked to cancer development and shorter lifespans. However, exercise has been shown to promote local IGF-1 expression but not systematic IGF-1, and lower intensity aerobic exercise is shown to down-regulate IGF-1 and up-regulate IGFBP-1.

“Effect of Low-Intensity Aerobic Exercise on Insulin-Like Growth Factor-I and Insulin-Like Growth Factor-Binding Proteins in Healthy Men” (International Journal of Endocrinology)

“IGFBP-1 plays an important and potentially beneficial role in regulating metabolic and vascular homeostasis.” (NIH)

“Low circulating levels of insulin-like growth factor binding protein-1 (IGFBP-1) are closely associated with the presence of macrovascular disease and hypertension in type 2 diabetes” (NIH)

Telomeres

Telomeres (the end caps of our genes) also suffer from accumulated damage due to replication: they gradually get shorter due to imperfect cell division.

Currently there is work to research therapies for telomere lengthening. This would help prevent faulty replication as we age (cancer).

There are definitely numerous more pathways we have yet to discover and it seems the pace of research is accelerating! Evidence shows that longevity lifestyles happen to activate a lot of these pathways as well.

Inflammation

The role of inflammation is an overarching theme among emerging medical research that is attributed to all-cause mortality and quality of life. Both acute and chronic systematic inflammation can accelerate the degradation of our bodies. I am excited to expand upon this growing body of research in my inflammation series! Here’s some breadcrumbs.

• Epstein-Barr virus & autoimmune disease

• HPA axis: gut-brain link & dysbiosis

mRNA Therapies

What is mRNA?

COVID mRNA Vaccine

Developed & manufactured in less than 4 months.

“The fastest vaccine in history” (UCLA Health)

The COVID pandemic took a huge toll on global society, but it just happens to have been the catalyst for one of the biggest technological revolutions in human history! mRNA therapies have been in development for awhile, but pandemic emergency vaccine development has kick-started a whole new forefront of medicine.

“Unlocking the promise of mRNA therapeutics“ (Nature.com, Nov 3, 2022)

^ shows wide variety of applications for mRNA technology

“Cancer and heart disease vaccines ‘ready by end of the decade’” (Apr 8, 2023)

• The success of the Covid jab has escalated the development of vaccines for cancer and other conditions such as heart disease

“NIH launches clinical trial of three mRNA HIV vaccines“ (NIH, March 14, 2022)

“Two U of T teams partner with Moderna to develop new mRNA-based tools to target HIV and other diseases“ (UofT, July 27, 2023)

“Tapping the potential of mRNA in cellular reprogramming and beyond” (Longevity.Technology, June 1, 2023)

“Reprogramming to recover youthful epigenetic information and restore vision” (Nature.com, Dec 2, 2020)

“Turn Biotechnologies - We turn back time on age-related diseases“

Longevity Diagnostics

“Linking interdisciplinary and multiscale approaches to improve healthspan—a new UK model for collaborative research networks in ageing biology and clinical translation“ (The Lancet, Healthy Longevity - May 2022)

“Neurotrack develops cognitive screening tools to help healthcare providers and individuals assess, monitor, and strengthen cognitive health…”

Neurotech

Neuralink

Kernel

Reproductive Longevity

“Improve assisted fertility outcomes” (Gameto)

Longevity Supplementation

Here’s how I would rank the best longevity supplements based on current evidence of benefits & safety. However, addressing any nutritional deficiencies will be far more substantial in benefit! Vitamin D3/K2/B complex are often deficient. Get your blood-work done to know for certain.

1. Creatine (ATP-creatine phosphate system / alactic system)

   1. Saturation levels required = 5g everyday

   2. Improves body composition, anaerobic performance, recovery?

   3. Potential cognitive benefits, studies still coming

   4. Safety proven beyond doubt

   

2. Beta-Alanine (glycolysis system / lactic acid system)

   1. Saturation levels required = 5g everyday

   2. “Beta-Alanine Supplementation Improved 10-km Running Time Trial in Physically Active Adults” (Frontiersin.org)

   3. Possible induced taurine deficiency

   “Taurine deficiency is probably not a practical concern with conservative beta-alanine supplementation (with breaks, to let cells accumulate taurine). Excessive usage of beta-alanine over a long period of time has not been studied in humans, however, so the possibility that it could lead to taurine deficiency cannot be ruled out. Severe muscle cramps can be a symptom of taurine deficiency and could serve as an indicator.” (Examine.com)

   1. Good safety profile so far, needs long term studies

   2. Combination with creatine appears to have even better results than either alone: increased muscle tone/performance

      “Effect of creatine and beta-alanine supplementation on performance and endocrine responses in strength/power athletes” (NIH)

3. [NMN] Nicotinamide Mononucleotide (aerobic system)

   1. Disclaimer: This is an emerging supplement, keep up to date on studies!

   2. Increases health-span significantly, increase lifespan slightly (in rats)

   3. Other metabolic health benefits: insulin sensitivity, mitochondrial function, anti-inflammatory, improved neuronal function, and more!

   4. NMN appears to boost endurance in amateur runners, study finds

   5. Studies are showing good safety profile in early human trials

4. Hydrolyzed Collagen

   1. Supports skin, joint, hair, nail growth

   2. Improves exercise recovery

   3. Better absorption / function with vitamin C / hylauronic acid

5. Magnesium Bisglycinate / Threonate (brain health, relaxation)
   Magnesium Citrate (muscle recovery, relaxation)

   1. Well tolerated (no stomach irritation) bio-available forms

   2. Supports muscle recovery, brain health, and more

6. GlyNAC (amino acid antioxidant) [Highly recommended for ages over 40]

   1. Glycine + NAC (N-acetyl cysteine)

   2. Reverses aging hallmarks

   3. Promotes healthy aging in various ways

   4. Polyphenols are similar

      1. I’m young so I just drink Japanese green tea/matcha

NAD+

• Related to vitamin B complex (multiple vital body functions)

• Significant role in mitochondria function therefore energy production

• Low levels lead to fatigue, neurodegenerative disease, and poor mental health

• Supplementation can help multiple sclerosis

• NAD+ precursors = NMN, Niacin (Vitamin B3), Niacinamide

“The Role of NAD+ and How Increasing NAD+ Benefits Your Brain“ (June 17, 2023)

NMN

Glutathione

• Antioxidant effects

  • Pterostilbene might be better (found in blueberries, almonds)
    → more lipophilic, so able to enter cell membranes easier

• Precursor = NAC

“Glutathione-related antioxidant defence, DNA damage, and DNA repair in patients suffering from post-COVID conditions“ (July 9, 2023)

“Supplementing Glycine and N-Acetylcysteine (GlyNAC) in Older Adults Improves Glutathione Deficiency, Oxidative Stress, Mitochondrial Dysfunction, Inflammation, Physical Function, and Aging Hallmarks: A Randomized Clinical Trial” (Aug 17, 2022)

Dog Life Extension

“The secret to helping your dog live longer” (Mar 9, 2023)

• Dogs age seven times faster than humans – but new research into canine longevity could offer the key to extending their lifespan

“Loyal announces the first longevity clinical study design supported by FDA“ (Mar 15, 2023)

Cancer Diagnostics/Treatments

“Very Small Embryonic-Like Stem Cells Transform Into Cancer Stem Cells and Are Novel Candidates for Detecting/Monitoring Cancer by a Simple Blood Test” (April 2023)

“'Cancer-killing pill' that appears to 'annihilate' solid tumours is now being tested on humans” (Aug 2, 2023)

“A Universal Cancer Treatment?” (Oct 5, 2022)

• A medicine that disrupts the DNA replication of cancer cells may be within reach.

“Stanford Medicine scientists transform cancer cells into weapons against cancer” (Mar 1, 2023)

• Researchers found that when they turned cancer cells into immune cells, they were able to teach other immune cells how to attack cancer.

“Sound Waves Trigger Anti-Cancer Immune Responses in Mice” (Feb 1, 2023)

• "We found that histotripsy somehow not only kills cancer cells, but causes them to undergo a unique pathway of cell death that draws the attention of the immune system”

Neurodegenerative Disease

“Two decades of Alzheimer's research may be based on deliberate fraud that has cost millions of lives” (July 22, 2022)

• Amyloid plaque =/= proper therapeutic target for curing Alzheimers

“Apolipoprotein E and Alzheimer disease: pathobiology and targeting strategies” (July 31, 2019)

• APOE = accurate diagnostic marker for alzheimers

“Alzheimer’s disease large-scale gene expression portrait identifies exercise as the top theoretical treatment” (Oct 13, 2022)

“Reprogramming the Brain’s Cleaning Crew to Mop Up Alzheimer’s Disease” (Aug 11, 2022)

• New CRISPR Technology Puts Diseased Microglia Back on Track

Bryan Johnson

There are things I disagree with regarding optimization in his routine, but there are definitely many aspects that hold real merit given the emerging evidence.

Blueprint - Be the next evolution of human. Build your Autonomous Self

Rejuvenation Olympics

Definition: how long you’re healthy enough to do the things that matter to you.

Key Takeaways

• Medicine 2.0 (modern) deals with problems after they present themselves.
  = prolongs suffering at end of life

  • Medicine 3.0 (emerging) focuses on prevention over cures

  • Compress the amount of time spent in the final stages of decline.

• Your longevity curve is malleable.

  • “Not based on one pill, one magic workout, one fruit smoothie or any such elixir.” - Dr. Peter Attia

  • “It’s going to come down to a lot of hard work, a lot of understanding, a lot of sacrifice, and a lot of strategy.” - Dr. Peter Attia

Longevity Lifestyle

^ A fun thought experiment

Avoiding Premature Death

The 4 horsemen (major killer diseases) are:

1. Cardiovascular disease

2. Cancer

3. Neurodegenerative disease

4. Type 2 diabetes

In my recent healthcare post I covered how these diseases are clearly preventable. They have the commonality of metabolic dysfunction and what follows in this post is a comprehensive lifestyle to combat this. The benefits you could reap extend beyond preventing these diseases and will lead to better brain health, immunity, and more!

Exercise

I covered some exercise related concepts and training methods in the post below. Here I will further elaborate on the physiological mechanisms which extend our healthspans.

Re-Iterating the Importance of Muscle Mass

“Association of frailty and pre-frailty with increased risk of mortality among older Canadians” (Statistics Canada)

I think that this association with frailty and increased risk of mortality could extend even to younger populations. Emerging evidence suggests that muscles play a vital role in numerous aspects of our health including immunity, inflammation, and organ health.

“Muscle is the organ of longevity.“ - Dr. Adeel Khan

“Muscle–Organ Crosstalk: The Emerging Roles of Myokines”

Maintaining Muscle Mass & Organ/Brain Health

“Use it or lose it” is a common phrase that teaches us our bodies will not retain abilities unless we explicitly tell it to. This mindset could be applied to both the physical and mental aspects of our bodies. We must constantly challenge ourselves to remain youthful.

Hybrid Training

There is a growing community of athletes who are simultaneously able to powerlift at high levels and go run a marathon in the same day! While this example is quite extreme, hybrid training is proving itself to be a growing field.

We see in the diagram above that resistance training and cardiovascular exercise have different effects on our physiology. As a result, hybrid training would harness the combined benefits leading to better health outcomes!

Examples of Hybrid Athletes

Diet

In my last post I covered the idea of facultative carnivores and hunter-gatherer diets. Here are some of the mechanisms of how our bodies metabolize what we eat.

“The Top 20 Biggest Nutrition Myths”

Food Industry Corruption

Carbohydrates

Sugar consumption seems to be a complicated topic. Different foods have different glycemic index affecting spikes in blood sugar. However, I will discuss below whether this can affect individuals differently dependent on their athletic ability.

“Why The Glycemic Index Is Misleading“
(Lower GI foods are generally healthier, but this is not a catch-all)

Insulin resistance is the main concern of chronic high blood sugar. Elevated blood sugar levels over time can lead to metabolic dysfunction within our bodies. The resulting consequences can be wide and devastating (obesity, diabetes, heart disease, more), but what if you are an athlete?

Exercise is proven to be anti-inflammatory, increase insulin sensitivity, and create adaptations for efficient glycogenesis (uptake of glucose into the muscles).

Studies/meta-analyses still need to be done to determine whether high GI foods have negative effects on glycogen adapted athletes, but it appears it is an optimal fuel for endurance athletics.

“Effects of endurance exercise training on muscle glycogen accumulation in humans“ (Journal of Applied Physiology)

Both anaerobic (power) and aerobic (endurance) athletes seem to benefit from “carb loading,” where lots of glycogen is stored in the muscle. This creates a puffy muscle appearance, which bodybuilders love, but more importantly the fuel is stored and ready to go. Not to be confused with fat accumulation which has a different metabolism (this is what would happen if you carb load and you are not athletic/remain dormant).

Electrolytes

“LMNT’s electrolyte ratios explained”

Fats

I mentioned before that my favourite fats are EVOO, avocado oil, grass fed butter or fresh animal fats. The latest research proves that animal fats are in fact not unhealthy given you consume them appropriately. Survivalists understand the importance of animal fat for sustenance. In fact, in the recent season of “Alone” I watched how one competitor lost over 30 lbs despite having a whole moose to feed on. This was because a wild wolverine ate all the fat off his food and this loss of a vital macronutrient led to starvation.

Furthermore, cholesterol is a vital part of our diets. Testosterone is made from cholesterol as are many other hormones! Lots of conflicting advice is given about fats because of the clusterfuck that is the agricultural industry. Well here is the latest evidence based advice.

“The truth about fats: the good, the bad, and the in-between”
(Avoid the trans fats, limit the saturated fats, and replace with essential polyunsaturated fats) [Harvard Health Publishing, April 2022]

• Saturated fats are not bad
  (given good quality source, no overconsumption, active lifestyle)

• Trans fats are definitely bad

• Maintain optimal omega 3/6/9 ratios

  • Vegetable oils are high in omega 6/9 fatty acids

    

  • Diets should contain higher levels of omega 3 to offset modern foods
    ”Omega-6 to Omega-3 Ratio: What Does It Mean and What's Optimal?” (InsideTracker)

    

Adipose Accumulation

^ unless you have a diagnosed metabolic condition (get your bloodwork)

Our body fat is an integral part of our metabolism, but modern diets are much more caloric and rich than what our ancestors ate. This had led to a drastic rise in obesity, especially among Americans. In survival situations having fat accumuled is extremely advantageous as our fasting (low caloric condition) physiology are quite adept.

Multi-Day Fasting (Not Intermittent Fasting)

The powers of fasting are fascinating as a deeply rooted survival mechanism. It has been shown to promote a number of beneficial pathways, and autophagy in particular. This is the process in which our bodies repair our damaged cells, so effectively it is anti-cancer behaviour. I will expand upon this in my inflammation series (release date: TBD).

Keep in mind that fasting can result in muscle loss, but this is dependent on multiple factors such as your activity level and pre-existing level of body fat.

Sleep

Our brains produce metabolic waste just like any other part of our body. There is evidence to show that sleep is a process where we clear out this waste and consolidate memories/emotions. The science behind sleep is complex and we do not yet fully understand it. I will cover more about this topic in the future!

If you are interested, there are more videos about sleep in this post below.

How I optimize sleep:

- Early healthy dinner (5pm)

- Cold room (64 degrees)

- No caffeine after 12pm

- Go to bed early (9pm)

- No water after dinner

- Blacked out room

- Read before bed

- Track it (Oura)

- Sleep alone

- No alcohol

@ColinKeeley

Other Lifestyle Factors

Emotional/Mental Health

Covered in psychology posts coming soon!

Saunas

Cold Exposure Therapy

Red Light Therapy

Pollution

Skincare

If you’re gonna live longer, it’s probably a good idea to take care of your skin too. There are also other dangerous such as melanoma (skin cancer) from UV damage, particularly for those in exposure to the sun at elevated amounts. Whether it is occupation or recreational it is good to be UV aware.

“The Risk of Melanoma in Airline Pilots and Cabin Crew - A Meta-analysis”

A lot of sunscreens have questionable active ingredients and addities, especially chemical based ones. The best that I’ve found are non-nano zinc oxide sunscreens, however they do tend to have a white cast/pastiness. This seems to be the trade off for non-toxicity, which I think is an acceptable compromise.

“Non-Toxic Sunscreen Guide” (Gimme the Good Stuff)

• Heel strike vs forefoot strike?

• How do barefoot populations move around?

• Concrete vs trail running?

• Are we omnivores?

• How did our ancestors eat?

Topics Covered

1. Walking & Running

2. Modern Hard Surfaces

3. Extra: Facultative Carnivores

Sapien Fitness Series

Walking & Running

“These observations suggest that plantigrade foot posture improves the economy of walking. Relative to other mammals, humans are economical walkers, but not economical runners. Given the great distances hunter-gatherers travel, it is not surprising that humans retained a foot posture, inherited from our more arboreal great ape ancestors, that facilitates economical walking.”

“The influence of foot posture on the cost of transport in humans”

So basically heel striking is way more efficient for walking. However, there is a place for forefoot striking.

“Humans are very good at running long distances. We are physiologically and anatomically specialized for running long distances. But the anatomy of our feet is not consistent with economical running. Think of all the animals that are the best runners – gazelles, deer, horses, dogs – they all run on the ball of their feet or the tips of their toes.”

“The Cost of Being on Your Toes“ (University of Utah)

Nature tells us that running is most efficient on the balls or tips of your feet. Forefoot striking seems to be the best option when running.

“how to make sense of diverse arguments about minimal shoes, cushioning, and strike type? First, the restricted variation in strike type among habitually shod runners today may be a recent phenomenon, and it would be useful to test if runners adopt more variation when running on trails rather than on pavement or treadmills. In addition, although rearfoot and forefoot striking are both normal, everything involves trade-offs. RFS (rear foot strike) landings have the potential advantages of being comfortable in shoes or on soft surfaces, they require less calf and foot muscle strength, and they lessen external moments acting around the ankle [39]. Their potential disadvantages are that they cause impact peaks whose rate and magnitude are hypothesized by some researchers to be related to some repetitive stress injuries, they increase external moments around the knee, and certain kinematic patterns associated with (but not exclusive to) RFS gaits, such as overstriding and extended knees at landing, are implicated in some repetitive stress injuries [40]. More research is needed to evaluate the costs and benefits of different strike types, but one hypothesis that also needs to be explored is that running with more kinematic variation, as perhaps occurs during trail running, is more natural and may also be beneficial.”

“Variation in Foot Strike Patterns among Habitually Barefoot and Shod Runners in Kenya“

Heel striking and variations in foot strike seem to be natural to an extent, but this may only be beneficial on natural surfaces like in trail running.

Modern Hard Surfaces

Nowadays the surfaces we live on are a lot harder than what we encounter out in nature. From concrete sidewalks to indoor flooring we expose our feet to much harder surfaces in our modern society. Walking and running on concrete provides no cushioning, whereas we are naturally evolved to tread more responsive dirt surfaces.

If you are thinking of transitioning to more barefoot style movement it is a good idea to gradually transition to prevent injury, especially if you are older. Also, if you are always on concrete then having some cushioning is likely the better option.

“Foot bone marrow edema after a 10-wk transition to minimalist running shoes”

I think one thing to keep in mind is the drop of shoes. This can be advantageous during running as it puts you in a forward posture. However, this is not advantageous for walking or standing where it can put you in an unnatural posture.

Extra: Facultative Carnivores

This section of the post spills over into related topics in the upcoming weeks, but I thought the anthropological/biological relation tied in neatly.

“Digestive Systems - Herbivores, Omnivores, and Carnivores” (LibreTexts Biology)

“…the Latin term omnivore literally means “eater of everything”, omnivores cannot really eat everything that other animals eat. They can only eat things that are moderately easy to acquire while being moderately nutritious. For example, most omnivores cannot live by grazing…”

Hunter-Gatherer history

One interesting area to look at is the evolution of dogs alongside our hunter gatherer era. They were heavily integrated into our ancient societies and as a result shared the same foods as us. Dogs are in fact facultative carnivores, meaning that they are primarily carnivores that can additionally eat plant matter to satisfy their nutritional needs.

“Facultative carnivores are those that also eat non-animal food in addition to animal food. Note that there is no clear line that differentiates facultative carnivores from omnivores; dogs would be considered facultative carnivores.“ (LibreTexts Biology)

Preceding the agricultural revolution we mostly hunted animals with spears in large groups. Cultivated crop strains enabled farms to produce food yields beyond the natural amount, where before we could only forage here and there.

Another interesting thing to note is that anti-nutrients have been found to exist in plant foods. Plants do not have many mechanisms to defend themselves like animals so they employ chemical warfare, in the form of substances naturally occurring in their bodies.

“Are Anti-Nutrients Harmful?“ (Harvard School of Public Health)

“Is There Such a Thing as “Anti-Nutrients”? A Narrative Review of Perceived Problematic Plant Compounds”

Now “anti-nutrients” or phyto-chemicals are not all bad as it includes chemicals like terpenoids, tannins, polyphenols, and more. These have proven themselves to be anti-inflammatory, but we must still pay attention to each chemical case by case. For example, high oxalate consumption is known to contribute to kidney stones.

“Carnivore” Diet

Paul Saladino is the originator of the carnivore diet and I think there is some real merit to this idea. The simple facts are that the speed of plant cultivation outpaces dietary evolution. We see this in the agrarian malnutrition mentioned in part 1 of this series.

Now some people say that red meat causes cancer, but these findings below may suggest otherwise. It may just be about the cooking method and quality of the meat we consume. In fact, these reasons below may be the culprit behind the recent rise in colon cancer, even among young people.

“Nitrosamines in food raise a health concern“ (European Food Safety Authority)

• Nitrosamines (carcinogen) have been found in cured meat products, processed fish, cocoa, beer and other alcoholic beverages.

“Chemicals in Meat Cooked at High Temperatures and Cancer Risk“ (National Cancer Institute)

• Charcoal cooking/other high temperature cooking has been shown to form carcinogens: heterocyclic amines and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)

“What Does Science REALLY Say About Vegetable Oils and Cancer?” (UC Davis)

“Deep frying cooking oils promote the high risk of metastases in the breast-A critical review” (Food and Chemical Toxicology)

• Also, avoid industrialized seed oils (canola, other vegetable oils), the heat extraction process produces carcinogens: aldehydes, PAHs, and more.

• The main concern here seems to be about oxidation of oil. This is ideally avoided as much as possible. Oxidation can occur when oils are left exposed to air (oxygen) for extremely long periods of time (lack of airtight seal), kept heated for a decent amount of time (deep frying equipment) or heated over their smoke point and start to burn.

As you can see avocado oil and beef fat have the highest smoking points. Some refined oils have high smoking points, but of course the refining process may produce carcinogens. Other unrefined oils may have lower smoking points and they can be treated accordingly. For example, I do not sear or fry anything with my EVOO (extra virgin olive oil), I simply eat it fresh in recipes. In general, I think that fresh animal fats, grass fed butter, EVOO, and avocado oil are healthy. They are many studies showing positive cardiovascular effects. Margarine (refined vegetable oil with additives) is actually unhealthy and it is crazy how butter/animal fats were demonized by agricultural lobbyists.

Carnivore diet can include fruits, honey, and other whole foods. There is no reason to be dogmatic about it. This is probably very similar to what our ancestors ate: mostly hunted animals, some berries/fruits here and there, and other nutritious finds like honey, nut/seeds or vegetables/herbs/spices.

Nutrients critical for optimal human life found only in appreciable quantities/bioavailable forms in animal foods:

-Creatine

-Carnitine

-Anserine

-Taurine

-Vitamin A

-B12

-K2 (K2 in natto is from bacteria not soybeans)

-Riboflavin

-Biotin

-Iron

-Iodine

-Zinc

...

Nutrients optimal for human health found only in appreciable quantities in plant foods:

None*

*Some might argue vitamin C, which is, in fact found in animal organs and meat, and is also quite easy to obtain in fruit (which I think is great).

**Some might also argue that "phytochemicals," which is false. Many of these compounds are found in grass fed meat and organs.

***Fiber? Meh, you can get some from fruit if you want but I'm underwhelmed by it's value in the human diet.

*No I don't fear fructose. Please show me a single human trial with whole foods containing fructose that shows harm. I know of many that show benefit.

@paulsauladinomd

“What about vitamin C?” (reddit/r/zerocarb)

“How much fiber do I need? (reddit/r/ketoscience)

“Red Meat and the environment“ (reddit/r/zerocarb)

“The Vegetarian Myth by Lierre Kieth“

There is further anecdotal evidence of “carnivore diet” curing autoimmune & metabolic disease like rheumatoid arthritis & diabetes.

• What are soft tissues?

• Why is soft tissue damage hard to repair?

• Are there any good solutions?

Topics Covered

1. Soft Tissue Damage

2. Current Treatments

3. Adipose Derived Stem Cells

4. The Pain Cycle & Training

5. Extra: The Human Feet

Sapien Fitness Series

Soft Tissue Damage

In this post I will be talking about some of the other important tissues in our body aside from muscle fibers. When our muscles are damaged they can heal pretty rapidly, but this is not the same with cartilage or other connective tissues. This is why joint injuries can put athletes careers to a brutal end.

Things like our meniscus, bursa, labrums, intervertebral disks, and tendons are made up of these different connective tissues.

The main reason why it is hard for our bodies to repair our joints is because they are often avascular regions. This means that the low blood flow in these parts of our body slow our natural repair process.

Another problem with soft tissue repair is that our body can often utilize scarring instead of the full healing process. Tissue repair is a complex process that I will cover more in my inflammation series!

These injuries are also hard to diagnose because of the limited radiology options we have. X-ray & CT scan can only see bones. MRI is good but it still does not have the greatest resolution. Also, there are usually long wait times due to their limited availability/high cost. Ultrasound can work for more surface level tissues but again the resolution is limited, more-so than MRI. However, ultrasound is not as time consuming or expensive to set up.

Current Treatments

Unfortunately, there are no real 100% treatments for connective tissue damage, but this hasn’t stopped people from trying all sorts of things to repair their joints. Some are effective while others may be useless or harmful.

• Orthopedic surgery - conventional recommendation w/ low to moderate success rates (long recovery time)

• Peptides

  • Research chemicals: unsure of long term effects, no studies

    • Debatable effects with uncertain risks

    • Some emerging exceptions: BPC-157, TB-500, GHK-Cu
      (do your own research)

• PRP (platelet rich plasma) - moderate success rate & good pain management results (around $600 per injection, 3x treatments recommended = $1,800 per body part)

  

  

  

  

  

• Crazy stories about bovine tendon replacement-hotel room surgeries

  

That elusive biological magic bullet for tendinopathy (Tendinopathy Rehabilitation, July 7, 2017)

ADSCs

There is evidence that adipose tissue derived stem cells can be of great benefit for connective tissue damage. It is FDA approved and offered in clinics across America/UK.

Treatments for “Lipogem” can cost upwards of US$3,500 per body part, but the effects are night/day especially for severe injuries/arthritic patients.

Lipogems: New Advances in Orthopedic Treatments: Questions for a Specialist (Hughston Clinic, July 1, 2018)

Regenerative medicine is a big emerging field and I will talk about it in another post! Stem cells have been in medical news for quite some years now and it is becoming more accessible, to those with the budget.

The Pain Cycle & Training

Another part of the issue with soft tissue damage is that pain works in complex ways. Many people go about their daily lives with many injuries, but they may not feel pain at all. Meanwhile, others may have microtears that cause them burden. Some doctors will recommend inactivity/avoidance as a solution, and while resting would help in severe injuries, this could lead to the vicious pain cycle for many: this is where an initial injury leads to perpetually worse conditions.

With this being said, this cycle can be broken with an adaptative mindset. Many orthopaedic surgeons will tell you to get surgery or your tendons will never recover, but I am here to tell you that this is not the only solution! Proper rehabilitation and physical training can bring your body to new heights despite the medical prognosis.

This YouTuber in particular is famous for having incredibly bad knees before learning how to train his tendons/muscles. He recommends training with regressions(easier versions of exercise) and scaling up to strength over your full range of motion. This functional training leads to incredible stability around your joints resulting in decreased injury and increased flexible strength. One thing to keep in mind is that these kind of results don’t happen overnight. Tendons repair themselves at slower rates than muscles so they take longer to adapt. With this in mind, practice patience if you ever injure your soft tissues.

Extra: The Human Feet

We have incredibly complex feet. Each foot contains over 26 bones packaged together with a network of springy soft tissues.

Nowadays, many companies have moved away from barefoot style movement and use narrow shoes that, over time, shape our feet.

The natural foot has plenty of support and strength given it is trained.

I have recently been trying to convert to more minimalist shoes that will transition my feet to work more in supporting my weight. I think that this will have amazing carryover effects in my fitness and MMA training. Our bodies are a complex kinetic chain and it is only as strong as the weakest link. A brand I would highly recommend is Altra: some shoe models are ultramarathoners’ favourites!

• Zero drop (heel to toe height)

• Minimal cushioning (foot to ground connection)

• Foot-shaped toe box (let your toes spread out and provide grip)

• Why & how should I get muscular?

• Why & how should I improve my cardio?

• What are the trade-offs between strength & endurance?

• Can I become more stress resilient?

Topics Covered

1. Muscle Mass & Limiting Factors

2. Strength vs Power vs Endurance

3. HR Zone Training

Sapien Fitness Series

Muscle Mass

Hormesis

This principle applies similarly to any other type of training. We must balance how much workload we place on ourselves or we risk injury/burn out or non-meaningful progress.

CNS Fatigue

Bodyweight Training

I think that this is a good place to start for beginners who haven’t done strength training before. This was a big part of my beginning in fitness that allowed me to learn body positioning as well.

Resistance Training

• Dumbbells → good for extra stabilization work

• Barbells → good for loading heavy weight

• Kettlebells → good for plyometric/whole body movement

• Cables → good for constant tension through movement

Effects of Resistance Exercise on Bone Health (NIH, Dec 2018)
[Basically lifting weights make your bones denser and stronger.
Astronauts use resistance training in space to retain bone density/muscle.]

Limiting Factors

Things like your hormones and genetic dispositions can affect your muscle growth. Testosterone is a vital hormone that regulates a lot of bodily functions and muscle mass. This can be naturally boosted by a healthy lifestyle such as not being sedentary or eating poor quality food.

Myostatin is a protein that regulates our muscle growth so it does not get out of control. The amount of this protein can vary from person to person and mutations of this can be observed in animals where they grow excessively muscular. Nowadays there are experimental treatments to suppress this protein but it is extremely novel. I will elaborate on this with a post on regenerative medicine.

Getting Huge

Your maximum muscle mass potential scales with your height. Here is a link to a calculator that can give you a rough idea of a max bodyweight:

Maximum Muscular Potential of Drug-Free Athlete
[Take your height in cm, subtract 100, = ? kg is your maximum muscular potential in “peak condition” (for bodybuilding so ~5% bodyfat)]

Obviously it is more complicated than that. For example, the calculator gives me at 5’11” a maximum potential of 176 lbs at 5% body fat, but I do not plan to focus on bodybuilding and mainly workout for strength. Strength is typically better at a higher bodyfat, my goal being around 12%. I also intend on taking creatine my whole life for its health, cognitive, and athletic benefits. Due to this I will carry more water weight, so I see myself sitting at around 190+ lbs at my maximum muscular potential. At this weight I am considered “overweight” by BMI standards at 26.5, but I would actually be athletic.

My Personal Advice

Key Points

• Don’t rush into things. You will injure yourself, I know from experience. Build volume gradually. Listen to your body.

• Compound movements: bulk of exercise

• Isolation movements: areas of weakness

• Functional work: unilateral & cross-body compound movements

• Linear progression: weight, reps, time under tension (slow & paused reps)

• Dynamic programming: deload weeks, volume weeks, focus weeks

• Eat liquid calories: 1000-2000 calorie smoothie + regular meals

  • Whole milk (high protein), greek yogurt (high protein), frozen fruits, banana, protein, creatine, collagen, peanut butter powder (sugar free)

• Eat 1.6-3.3g of protein / kg of bodyweight

  • Studies corroborate that this is the maximum useful amount if doing high intensity exercise: bodybuilding, powerlifting, sprints, etc

  • Ex) At 160 lbs/73 kg I want to have 110 - 240g of protein /day

  • Smoothie above: >100g of protein inside
    (depending on brands. pick no/low sugar high protein products)

  • Chicken breast has the highest protein per weight:
    8 oz raw chicken breast → 6 oz cooked chicken breast (~50g protein)

If you are seeking more rigorous and continually updated information I would highly recommend MASS (Monthly Applications in Strength Sport). It is a paid analysis of the latest research in exercise science with directly applicable conclusions.

https://www.strongerbyscience.com/mass/

The Benefits

Strength vs Power vs Endurance

Strength is a measure of the total force that you can produce. Increasing strength does not necessarily equate to increased muscle mass. A large proportion of strength ability comes from neural adaptations.

Have you ever heard of a mom post-hurricane lifting entire cars off of their children? Normally your body does not let you do this to prevent serious injury. However, you can strike a balance and you may unlock a new level of strength.

When powerlifters compete they stick to a certain bodyweight division. The multiples of their bodyweight in their lifts is used to gauge their level.

Weightlifting Strength Standards

However, increased muscle mass would result in overall greater strength. Strongmen would be a good example of those seeking maximal strength.

Power is different from strength in that it is the total force per unit of time. In other words, the explosiveness of an athlete. A good example of this would be Olympic lifters or sprinters. Plyometric programs are used to train power, involving exercises like jumps, sprints & other rapid movements.

Endurance is an entirely different field and athletes are often quite lean. This is likely because it is advantageous to carry less weight over long distances. We can see this clearly over the range of distance running athletes.

However, this leanness does seem to vary between other endurance sports. Triathletes are often more muscular despite enduring longer distances and cyclists have tremendous legs: the variations do make sense given the generalist nature of triathlon and the emphasis on leg drive for cycling.

Muscle Fibers

There are 3 type of skeletal muscle fibers. Type 1 is the slow twitch muscle fiber. Type 2 is the fast twitch muscle fiber but there are 2 types called 2A and 2X. 2A is sometimes called the intermediate fiber because it is between fast and slow fibers. 2X is the most explosive fiber in our bodies but is usually present in small amounts. Dependent on your training style the body will accumulate certain proportions of these fibers giving you an advantage for the activity.

Heart Rate Zones

The recommendation from a lot of experts is to do the bulk majority of your training in low heart rate zones and to focus on duration versus speed. Speed work has its place, but the low heart rate approach allows for quick recovery to train again the next day. The risk of injury also significantly drops so it is a better approach for longevity.

There are multiple ways of classifying heart rate zones. The original is the Nordic convention, but Dr. Stephen Seiler suggests looking at things from a physiological perspective where there are really only 3 zones to concern yourself.

MAF Training

Maximum Aerobic Function training = “run slow to run fast”

180 - age = Zone 2 upper limit (rough estimate)

+- dependent on experience, recent illness, diet/sleep/etc

80/20 Training

80% of training at low intensity

20% of training at moderate-high intensity

Anaerobic Cardio

Sprints, weightlifting & other oxygen deprived exercise

VO2 Max

Measuring your cardiovascular ability.

Now you may ask if I do endurance with strength training will it prevent muscle growth? The answer is not so straightforward, but generally it is healthier to do a balance of both.

It is entirely possible to train your body to handle both strength and endurance activities. As we saw in the previous post in this series the human body is capable of highly specializing into a niche, but we can also be very good generalists. It all depends on what stressors you train your body to handle and the mental barriers you may have to surpass.

• What is special about Homo sapiens?

• What is our biological niche?

• How have our brains evolved in recent history?

• Are we still evolving?

Topics Covered

• Homo sapiens

• Brain Evolution Trends

• Agrarian Malnutrition

• Rapid Microevolution

• Evolutionary Mismatch

Homo sapiens

The ability to throw objects at high speed is unique to our species.

Origins of human throwing unlocked (BBC, June 26, 2013)

We are also geared for incredible endurance.

The Evolution of Endurance (Science.org, Nov 17, 2004)
[Physiologic adaptations may have made humans better runners]

Hunter-Gatherer Niche

Human Adaptability

Homo sapiens has an incredible ability to adapt to its environment. This process can happen rather quickly. I will talk about “microevolutions” further down below.

The Generalist Specialist: Why Homo Sapiens Succeeded (Science.org, July 30, 2018)

Brain Evolution Trends

There are a number of interesting trends with our special brains.

Up until very recently our brains have been rapidly growing in size. There are a few hypotheses and one of them is that we have become domesticated through advanced civilizations. Domestication tends to shrink brain sizes as a by product of individuals being artificially (man-made) chosen for less aggression. Another hypothesis is that our brains are growing more efficient. These 2 hypotheses may have a sort of coinciding reasoning: we are depending more on our social groups and less on individual ability.

Agrarian Malnutrition

It appears the evidence suggest that our transition from foragers to agriculturalists took a toll on our nutrition. This makes sense given that all of our modern crops are significantly different from their ancestors having gone through careful selective breeding.

Early Farmers Were Sicker and Shorter Than Their Forager Ancestors (Discover.org, June 17, 2011)
[This effect was seen over thousands of years, starting at the dawn of agriculture about 10,000 years ago.In more recent times, however, height and health have been increasing, especially in 75 years or so since mechanized agriculture began to spread.]

Rapid Microevolution

It appears that life in general has a very robust ability to adapt. We can see plenty of evidence that evolution can occur in small steps quite rapidly.

Ongoing Human Adaptations

Humans are still evolving: 3 examples of recent adaptations (Inverse.com, Feb 2, 2020)

• On average, our bodies are cooling down. Records indicate body temperature declines 0.05 degrees Fahrenheit every decade. A likely explanation is that it is more efficient to produce less heat given our brain’s high demand.

• Many populations have specific dietary genes helping them process dairy and plants. FADS2 gene allows people to process omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids from non-meat sources.

• Our bones are becoming lighter since the advent of sedentary agriculturalism. It appears that our daily physical demands have decreased so our bodies have decided to not invest as much in our bones. This of course can be changed with resistance training! Which I will cover in part 2 of this series.

• There are definitely more adaptations occurring such as problematic neck posture changes from looking down at phone screens

Evolutionary Mismatch

The problem with today’s society is that we are progressing at a rate much faster than the mechanisms of evolution. This is also evident in our impact on the environment. The rates of climate change have never been so drastic due to our aggressive capacity to burn fossil fuels. This results in a “evolutionary mismatch” where our evolutionary adaptations play to our disadvantage in modern contexts. For example, our primal panic systems are meant to protect us from dangerous animals like bears, but nowadays there aren’t as many mortal dangers in our everyday lives. However, our panic systems can malfunction due to the high stress we can experience in our industrialized lives.

The modern lifestyle is a far cry from our hunter gatherer days and this change only occurred within the last 10,000 years or so. One interesting thing to note is that hunter-gatherers generally spend a lot of time not doing much. It could be argued that our work hours are an unnatural convention, but of course we are adaptable and certainly showing material competence in modern industry.

• What does the US Food & Drug Administration do?

• How does the US pharmaceutical industry work?

• What can we do about the leading causes of death?

• Why is US life expectancy declining?

• How is technology affecting healthcare?

Topics Covered

1. The FDA

2. Big Pharma

3. Leading Causes of Death

4. Preventative Care

The Supplement Industry

The Federally Recommended Diet

There is still no clear indication what the perfect diet is. It is becoming clear that it may be highly dependent person to person and this complicates the issue quite a bit. Food sensitivities exist and can significantly affects diets. Also, it is becoming evident that dairy and grain products can often contain unnecessary added sugars making diets unhealthy.

Another thing to consider is that protein might be under-recommended. If you are trying to build muscle or play a sport or even use your brain, your body requires protein. Everything in your body is made from protein and we are constantly repairing everything using new protein.

Other Shortcomings

The FDA has made some strides in public safety through nutritional labeling, food quality, and pharmaceutical innovations. However, there are quite a few issues present in modern food, supplement, and pharmaceutical industries. Recently there has been work to address these issues, but it is shocking it took this long for any official acknowledgement.

“FDA Proposes Updated Definition of ‘Healthy’ Claim on Food Packages to Help Improve Diet, Reduce Chronic Disease” (Sept 28, 2022)

Merchants of Doubt

It identifies parallels between the global warming controversy and earlier controversies over tobacco smoking, acid rain, DDT, and the hole in the ozone layer. Oreskes and Conway write that in each case "keeping the controversy alive" by spreading doubt and confusion after a scientific consensus had been reached was the basic strategy of those opposing action. In particular, they show that Fred Seitz, Fred Singer, and a few other contrarian scientists joined forces with conservative think tanks and private corporations to challenge the scientific consensus on many contemporary issues.

Things like this are still occurring in different parts of society. For example, the processed food industry is generating immense profits putting highly refined seed oils and added sugars in just about every food product. This is actively detrimental to the general population yet it continues. There are far more examples to list and it is insane!

Big Pharma

Pharmaceutical Titans

Do you notice anything? 6/10 of the 10 largest pharmaceutical companies in the world are American. In fact, Eli Lilly, Johnson & Johnson, and Merck are valued greater than 4/10 non-US companies combined. The American pharmaceutical industry is a giant like no other. It is also the largest lobbying spender in the world.

The Leading Causes of Death

Clear Preventions Available

We can see that heart disease is easily the most prevalent cause of death across the world.

We now definitely know what causes heart disease.

Dietary sugar consumption and health: umbrella review (The British Medical Journal, 05 April 2023)

Introduction: As an important component of the human diet, sugars have been shown to be harmfully associated with a variety of risk factors for decades, mainly including obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, hyperuricaemia, gout, ectopic fatty accumulation, dental caries, and some cancers.

Conclusions: High dietary sugar consumption is generally more harmful than beneficial for health, especially in cardiometabolic disease. Reducing the consumption of free sugars or added sugars to below 25 g/day (approximately 6 teaspoons/day) and limiting the consumption of sugar sweetened beverages to less than one serving/week (approximately 200-355 mL/week) are recommended to reduce the adverse effect of sugars on health.

Another big contributor may be sedentary lifestyles. I will be covering “Sapien fitness” in the next 3 posts!

Cancer is a difficult one because there are just so many different types. However, the solution may lie in more regular diagnostics. Catching cancer early is the strongest predictor of survival and could effectively be cheaper by avoiding greater complications down the road.

The next leading causes of death could effectively be impacted by an active lifestyle and healthy diet: lower respiratory disease, alzheimer’s disease, stroke, diabetes, kidney disease, pneumonia & influenza.

Modifiable Risk Factors

There are other factors not listed here such as air quality. Bigger cities will almost always have worse air quality. Hopefully we will see this improve as vehicles become electric. One negative consequence of climate change are the forest fires along the North American west coast. The smog from these fires can travel long distances and linger depending on wind patterns. It is recommended that people stay indoors during these conditions as the air pollutants are carcinogenic.

Deaths of Despair

Unfortunately we are seeing a rise in drug overdoses, alcohol poisoning, and suicides. This is definitely a symptom of a larger issue within Western nations at the moment. Suicide rates are incredibly high in East Asian countries, and are generally elevated in other Western countries such as the US & Canada.

Obesity Epidemic

Preventative Care

There is a saying that an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure.

Continuous Diagnostics

Currently this model of healthcare is brand new and quite expensive. However, this type of system at scale could become much more affordable. The government may be inclined to subsidize these services as it may reduce the long term cost of healthcare in the nation.

https://www.insidetracker.com/

Rapid Diagnostics

Digital Care

With all of the data from continuous diagnostics, advancing radiology, and other emerging technologies we can develop a much deeper understanding of biomedical data.

Network medicine is the application of network science in healthcare to accurately and precisely diagnose and treat patients.

These complex networks can be managed with AI tools. There is discussion of whether AI diagnostic tools should be implemented alongside doctors. Some early studies show that it could already improve accuracy. Misdiagnosis is a common issue occurring in hospitals across the globe.

Another important part of modern medicine is gene sequencing. We can determine a patient’s genetic risk factors and we may eventually see personalized medicine for your genetic makeup. The great thing is that the cost of gene sequencing has dramatically declined in the past couple decades.

https://www.23andme.com/

Catching Cancer Early

Modern Radiology

Available in Vancouver, New York, and other states. Prenuvo offers a chance to proactively screen for cancers and other complications for a premium price. Unfortunately MRI machines cost unbelievable amounts of money to install and maintain. This is owed to the complex engineering/physics behind this invention.

The vital component in MRIs is its superconducting coil. Hopefully in the future better superconductors will drive down costs for MRIs and other technologies such as maglev trains. The problem is that they have to be supercooled with liquid gas, so a room temperature superconductor would change the game completely.

Aside from cost, what matters for medical imaging is resolution. With more resolution we can see more detail and diagnose with more accuracy.

Brain Images Just Got 64 Million Times Sharper (Duke.edu, Apr 17, 2023)

We are constantly seeing advances in this area and it will enable leaps in diagnostics. Currently we are unable to precisely diagnose many soft tissue or neural issues due to the lack of resolution in modern radiology.

Other Health Measures

A Lesson From SARS-CoV-2: We Need to Build A Real-Time Global Biological Immune System (Bryan Johnson, Mar 28, 2020)

Cordyceps

A genus of the Ascomycota-Fungi kingdom, Cordyceps contains 600 different species discovered to date. Some of these species have a parasitic relationship with insects and control their minds through rudimentary chemical signaling.

The show “The Last of Us” imagines a world where a species of fungi has evolved to infect humans. While this is a scary thought the likelihood of this is negligible as our nervous/immune systems are exponentially more complex.

There are much more prominent dangers like viral pandemics. We must keep mutation rates in mind. Fungi are relatively much slower at evolving compared to the likes of virus

Zoonotic Transmission

There are many bacteria and viruses that evolved to attack the human body with all its complexities. For most of human civilization the norm was widespread disease and parasitization. They dealt with it in their own ways, with limited success, and now we know what really causes many of these infections. Thankfully, virtually most of these diseases have now been eradicated or significantly managed.

The Impact of Penicillin & Antibiotics

These diseases are now non-fatal given antibiotics are prescribed in due time. When we did not have antibiotics these illnesses would maim or kill in the millions of humans.

• Leprosy

  • Bacterium: Mycobacterium leprae

• Tuberculosis

  • Bacterium: Mycobacterium tubercolosis

• Plague (The Black Death)

  • Bacterium: Yersinia pestis

• Typhus

  • Bacterium: Rickettsia prowazekii, typhi, tsutsugamushi, spotted fever group

• Lyme disease

  • Bacterium: Borellia burgdorferi, mayonii

The Impact of Developed Hygiene Standards

Modern hygiene standards are relatively new in human history. Many developing countries still have some work to do in proper sanitation and hygiene education.

• Dysentery

  • Bacterium: Salmonella, E. coli, Campylobacter, Shigella

• Cholera

  • Bacterium: Vibrio cholerae

• Hepatitis E virus

The Impact of Vaccines

Many debilitating and incredibly lethal viruses have been eradicated thanks to the work of vaccine research. Some of these viruses still occur in parts of the world but they are generally contained to their local outbreaks.

• Smallpox virus

• Polio virus

• Measles virus

• Mumps virus

• Rubella virus

• Rabies virus

• Hep A/B viruses

• Ebola virus

• H1N1 virus (Influenza A, Spanish flu/Swine flu)

Mosquito Vector Diseases

There are new vaccines for malaria, but there is discussion over mosquito genetic engineering to completely eradicate them once and for all.

• Malaria

• Typhoid fever

• West nile virus

Ongoing Epidemics & Pandemics

mRNA technology may be able to eradicate these before the end of this century.

• Zika virus

• MERS virus (Middle East respiratory syndrome)

• Hepatitis C virus

• H5N1 virus (Influenza A, Bird flu)

• HIV virus (AIDS)